曹本冶教授《民族音乐学理论与方法》（三）――第一堂课非洲音乐和西方实践：非洲音乐学的西方视角评论”

课堂讨论：　　

邹婧：Nketia的这篇文章是对非洲音乐研究的历史及现状的梳理，涉及的内容非常多，不同的时期、人及学术氛围使得研究的方法、视角和成果都呈现出不同的面貌，我们也可以从其对非洲音乐研究的梳理中透视出学科的历史脉络。而学科自身的发展也是因为对研究对象的不断深入探究，以及学者的自我反省而密切相关的。文中经常提到研究者的立场的转换给结果带来的影响，即注意到研究者与研究对象的关系，体现出学者清醒的自我意识。　　

徐欣：我的感觉也有相似之处。我们可以从民族音乐学在欧洲研究的变迁，看出学科整个视角的转变。我认为无论是民族音乐学还是人类学，都存在两个研究模式，一是对偏远地区的模式，如非洲；二是对所谓的“高文明”地区的模式，如中国。本文呈现了对非洲音乐研究模式的变迁，其中提到早期没有对非洲音乐历史的研究，到了50年代到80年代的研究才有历史的关注和研究，我认为这和当时的思潮可能有关系，比如田野考察的重视，和考古学等研究共同重建历史。　　

吴艳：作者着重两个研究，一是西方学者的研究，二是非洲本土学者的研究，而他是如何来看待这两种研究的，文章呈现了作者对两者研究的比较。还有提出一个是权力话语的问题，即研究对谁有作用？研究成果对非洲有什么用，研究对象话语在哪里？这值得我们讨论。　　

齐江：这又涉及到“局内”、“局外”的问题，作者是一个非洲人，但却是西方的学术背景，那他到底代替的是非洲声音还是西方声音？作者的身份是多重的，和对我自己的研究的身份反思是一样的道理。　　

邹婧：确实研究的身份需要反思。我们要承认身份的相对性，这是一个渐变的过程。作者首先是个局内人，后来受到西方教育，带着学术眼光反观自己的文化。此外，作者是加纳人，“非洲”的含义是笼统的。　　

潘妍娜：尽管西方的研究在开始时带有殖民成分的，但是恰恰是西方的研究激发了非洲自我意识的苏醒。有正反两方面。　　

齐江：我想问一下讲解者，文中提到的从比较音乐学时期到民族音乐学时期的转变对于非洲音乐研究的的影响有何具体体现？　　

邹婧：有的。刚才我提及学者对于自我立场的意识的觉醒，这是在比较音乐学时期没有的。比较音乐学时期具体的研究成果主要是本体分析，是建立在二手资料的传统，50年代开始有田野考察的参与，以及从静态的本体分析转化为动态的过程分析。　　

徐欣：学科和非洲音乐研究之间是双向的互动的关系，我们是从本文可以看出学科的历史脉络。　　

栗辉：本文对于我的启发是，从研究的梳理中可以看出，不同的人做出不同的研究是出于自身的目的需要的，由此支撑我们的一切研究。有一个问题我想知道，即本文的写作在作者的研究中处于什么位置，对于学科而言意味着什么？　　

曹老师总结：刚才邹婧提到的“动态”研究，“动态”的反面就是“静态”，这与整篇文章都有关系。民族音乐学早期的比较音乐学为什么是静态研究？因为采录的东西，如乐器、录音要放在博物馆和档案馆中。在这种情况下就需要了解其本身的结构，因此对于“他者”的声音、实物当做静态的东西来处理。处理的方法用的是自然科学的方法，如比较、分类、归类。其方法的思想依归是当时欧洲的美学以及“进化论”思潮。20世纪50前后北美学科在人类学的影响下，强调音乐是处于文化中的，这就必然是一个动态过程的视野。我认为动态和静态的研究，即使是人类学取向的民族音乐学研究，也是同时存在的；比如，但我们将动态的音乐事件作为个案研究之时，我们是在把音乐的“一霎那”切片冰冻，将其静态化。所以动中有静，静中有动，不能主观的批评比较音乐学。　　

刚才有同学提到作者这篇文章对学科的影响，我想反问？为什么Nektia说的话有人会听？为什么他有话语权？　　

齐江：我认为首先他自身具有丰富的音乐研究的经验，第二是因为他具有国际性的学科视野，这也涉及到“局内”、“局外”的问题。　　

吴艳：无论是局内和局外，我认为两者都有优势，可以结合，但是还有一点是应该把如何观察和分析的过程呈现出来，这个过程是很重要的。　　

曹老师：我的回答很简单，即他达到了“知己知彼”的境界。知己知彼的人才有自信，说出来的话才让人明白接受。Nektia不仅对于西方的学术脉络很清楚，对于自己的研究，即加纳音乐，也非常深入。身为一个非洲人，他用自己的眼睛辨别是非，而不是盲目的跟随着西方潮流走。“我要让你看到我！”怎么让人看到你？要了解学科是什么。学科本身是西方的东西，就要知道西方人眼中的学科是什么。知道学科后，要根据自己的研究经验，用有自己的判断力，理清楚西方学科的“什么”对“我”有用。　　

曹老师对本文的点评：　　

【这是一个本土（但对西方学术传统有深刻了解）学者对西方学界研究自己文化传统的感受和看法。文章的所提，可以说是非西方学界和西方学界对话过程中普遍存在的问题。文章发后20多年的今天，民族音乐学的本土化才开始在国际会议的议题中作为主题作讨论（如2007年的ICTM维也纳国际年会），这个发展是可悲的缓慢。除了本土学者自己的不努力以外，也可见在学界中的少数（北美）对国际学界的大多数的文化霸权。文章对学界对非洲音乐研究的历史和现状的讨论，应该给对同学的学位论文写作提供了一个很好例子。】　　

Structure of the Article　　

Introduction: Brief Historical Outline of Africana Studies　　

Recording Programs 　　

Theoretical Perspectives　　

l          Analysis of music system　　

l          Cultural analysis　　

l          Eurocentricism: Whose analysis?　　

Practical Orientations　　

l          Relevance to the natives　　

l          Co-ordination of individual research activities into an organized forum 　　

Dialogue with African Musicians and Scholars　　

l          Western-centrism: Exclusive membership in the definition of the discipline 　　

l          Western-centrism: Native competence　　

l          Western-centrism: Questionable contribution of native scholarship　　

l          International dialogue between the West and African scholars　　

Conclusion: Africa-centered African Musicology　　

以下是曹老师希望同学们注意的段落：　　

Introduction: Brief Historical Outline of Africana Studies　　

p. 37　　

This concern for disseminating information about African music and enhancing understanding of it was shared to some extent by the pioneers of comparative musicology who contributed to African areas studies. The field recordings of ethnographers enabled scholars like Eric von Hornbostel and his “assistants ‘ at the Berlin Phonogramm-Archiv (Herzog, Kolinski, and Schneider) to analyse and interpret samples of African music in terms familiar or understandable to the musicological world. Likewise, documentary source materials enabled others to include 　Africa　 in their evolutionary studies of musical instruments, musical techniques, and music history. 【基于殖民主义、奴隶贩卖、探险猎奇、传教等因素，加上非洲文化当时所给西方的“野蛮” vs “文明”对比，使西方（特别是欧洲）较早便开始有对非洲作为“他者”的兴趣和“研究”。】　　

These efforts have been emulated by later scholars like Gilbert Rouget, Herbert Pepper, and Merriam, all of whom have provided overviews of African music or the music of a region.  … Rose Brandel (1961), a pupil of Curt Sachs, could write a whole book on the music of 　Central Africa　 without setting foot on any part of that region.　　

p. 38　　

When the importance of field work undertaken by musicologists themselves 【注意作者多次用“musicologists”来称呼民族音乐学学者，可见他对民族音乐学属音乐学的学科定位】 became generally accepted, investigations into African music were undertaken by musicologists who visited different African societies for short periods for this purpose; by permanent residents in South Africa such as Percival Kirby and Hugh Tracey; as well as by others like Arthur Morris Jones and Klaus Wachsmann.... Much of the groundwork in African musicology undertaken by these pioneering scholars was done from 1920 to 1950, the period of colonial development… the development of colonial institutes and research centers such as Institut Francais d’Afrique Noire (IFAN) in 　Africa　. In addition to the Berlin Phonogramm-Archiv, a comparative musicology section of Musee de I’Homme was founded in 1929 by Andre Schaeffner, 【此君对器乐学（organology）有重要得贡献；不过国内学界一般只知道H-S的体系】 who organised no less than six expeditions to West Africa from 1931 to 1958, a practice followed by Rouget who became his successor in 1965.　　

The study of African music…by European and British musicologists was continued in the pre-independence decade ( 1950-60)…, and in the following decade by a new generation of British scholars such as John Blacking, Anthony King, and David Rycroft; by French musicologists such as Hugo Zemp and Simha Arom; as well as by German and Austrian musicologists such as Robert Gunther, Artur Simon, and Gerhard Kubik. 　　

pp. 38　　

…from 1950 onward in the 　　United States　　, where academic interest in African music had been generated by the work of anthropologists of the earlier decades, such as Melville Herskovits…. Further interest was stimulated by results of expeditions to Africa, such as the 　University　 of 　Chicago　 Expedition to Liberia (1930-31 ) (in which George Herzog, who had emigrated from 　Germany　 to the 　United States　, participated) and the 　　Marshall　　 expedition to the Kalahari. Not only had African roots of jazz become an issue but also new approaches to the study of non-Western music were being developed…. The creation of the Society for Ethnomusicology in 1955 gave a new impetus....　　

p. 39　　

American Africanists of the 1950-60 period include…Merriam who worked mainly in Central Africa and Willard Rhodes who did his initial research in Zimbabwe and Zambia and later in 　West Africa　 …. The number of scholars in the field increased considerably in the decade 1970-80.　　

Theoretical Perspectives　　

p. 41　　

As a result of the expansion in field experience and the increased accumulation of materials on African music, Western perspectives on African musicology 【非洲音乐学、印度音乐学、日本音乐学… 中国人却总是争三吵四的建立不起来一统的“中国音乐学”。】 have broadened considerably in the last three decades. The evolutionary approach of comparative musicologists, for whom 　Africa　 represented a stage in the linear evolution of music, has been supplanted by new approaches to the problem of the historicity of music in African cultures.　　

l          Analysis of music system　　

p. 42　　

Rouget, Kubik, and Arom ….　　

l          Cultural analysis　　

…a great deal more attention is now being given to the cultural analysis of African music (see, for example, Blacking 1965 and 1969; Koetting 1984; Knight 1984) ….　　

There is also considerable interest in the terms and concepts used by African peoples to refer to their music, musical instruments, aspects of performance, categories of musicians, and the social context of music. Some scholars have provided comprehensive glossaries of such terms (Ames and King 1971) or have used them in historical studies (Hause 1948). Others have drawn on them in their enquiries into aesthetics (Kauffman 1969) and the formulation of the theoretical principles of African music (Knight 1984) or have used them as part of their framework for the analysis and interpretation of musical occasions and events (Stone 1982). 　　

pp. 42 – 43 　　

The integration of objectivity and experience 【“理性”和“感性”】 has also been of concern to some Western scholars; for the idea that the ethnomusicologist is concerned with music as an object of analysis and not with music as an art and a creative experience is not wholly accepted by scholars with a background in composition and performance. A relatively large number of scholars are now continuing their field studies of African music from where the scholars of the comparative musicology era left off.　　

l          Eurocentricism: Whose analysis?　　

p. 43　　

…western ethnomusicologists…such as Wachsmann, Merriam, and Blacking are among those who have made a significant impact on the theoretical orientations of ethnomusicology…. However, Western scholars could make even greater strides towards the development of perspectives on African musicology that are truly Africa-centered if the vestiges of eurocentricism in methodology and orientation (inherited from the colonial era in which scholarship was the exclusive concern of the West while other peoples and cultures merely provided field laboratories) were curtailed. 【是的，西方学界总认为只有他们才在做学术；“他者”，对他们来说，只是研究对象而已。】　　

PP． 43 – 44　　

【说得很好！确实，西方对“他者”的兴趣和研究，以及他们为此而建构的理论、方法、概念，都只是为了满足他们自身的需求。站在我们本土立场，我们应该反思和责疑这些理论、方法、概念的全球普遍合用和权威性。】　　

Practical Orientations　　

p. 45　　

…greater attention now needs to be given to the implications of musicological research undertaken in Africa for 　Africa　 itself…. The enthusiasm with which scholars study and report on the theoretical implications of the musical scene in Africa through journals published in their home countries or the eagerness with which they deposit their recordings in archives and private collections now needs to be matched by a similar concern for the countries in which they do their field studies. 【这是西方社会对“他者”的另类殖民主义掠夺行为】 …knowledge of African music should ultimately be a part of the readership to which Africanists address themselves…. as Alan Lomax observed almost two decades ago, while “【西方的】folklorists, musicologists and ethnologists patiently record the arts and life style of mankind,” it is unfortunately the case that　　

The major result of this scholarly effort has usually been the publication of books and articles in European languages which, like a good deal of research, have often been of more benefit to the researchers than to the people whose lives they closely concerned....　　

…this situation will change…as Africanists join in the debate on the professional “ethics” of ethnomusicology…. 【只有通过国际对话，本土学者才能在国际学界取得话语权】　　

pp. 45 – 46　　

…critics of Western praxis believe:　　

The question which must continually arise is what function and criteria Westerners have or should have, in their concern with African music. One criterion which must certainly predominate, and not only in music, is that of relevance to Africa. Without this non-African research in 　Africa　 will have to be seen as mere collecting, not giving. Of all the books and articles written about African music, one wonders how many are of use, or in use in 　Africa　? (African Music 5, no. 2: 5 ) . 　　

p. 46　　

Another practical problem sensed by Hugh Tracey long before the Society for Ethnomusicology came into being is the need for co-ordination of research and the creation of a forum for the exchange of ideas.… Accordingly, he founded the African Music Society in 1947….　　

Dialogue with African Musicians and Scholars　　

p. 49　　

In retrospect, the decade 1960-70 seems to have been the most exciting and challenging period of all for music and musicology in Africa, for the events of the decade established a strong bond between the study of music as an art (approached from the point of view of its theory and practice) and music as a scholarly discipline and a focus of research. As a result, the history of music and musicology forms an integral part of the intellectual and cultural history of post-colonial 　Africa　.　　

l          Western-centrism: Exclusive membership in the definition of the discipline 　　

pp. 49 – 50　　

The change of role 【本土音乐工作者研究本土音乐】 was viewed with some ambivalence by some Western ethnomusicologists, including some leaders of the field. Writing in the mid-1960s when African participation in musicology was becoming evident, Nett1 observes the“consensus” among ethnomusicologists:　　

【Nettl的这个看法显然跟随着人类学当时的学科定义，即人类学家不能研究自己的文化，不过Nettl在以后的书写中没敢再提。】　　

p. 50　　

In other words, African musicology pursued by Africans could not properly be considered as ethnomusicology…. On the other hand, the study of this music by an “outsider” such as Merriam would qualify as ethnomusicology because the field of research would be “outside the researchers own culture.” …the justification for this emphasis on “other” cultures is that “only in studying a culture foreign to himself can a scholar muster sufficient objectivity”…, an assumption which invalidates not only much of the work of Western scholars who study music in their own environment…　　

In the same period, Merriam similarly describes the ethnomusicologist as 　　

the outsider who seeks to understand what he hears through analysis of structure and behavior, and to reduce understanding to terms which will allow him to compare and generalize his results for music as a universal phenomenon" (1964: 25). 　　

Although Merriam could have used the term “scholar” instead of “outsider,” it seemed at this time that the relationship of the scholar to the materials he studied was crucial to the Western image of the ethnomusicologist.　　

l          Western-centrism: Native competence　　

p. 51　　

Another issue of some concern to Western scholars was scholarly competence, for the works of non-western scholars had to be “perfectly acceptable to Western musicologists.” When three monographs written by African musicians came out in the 1950s, Merriam…warned:　　

Scholarly standards have been established in the Western world, and whether we like it or not, African writers are going to be judged by those standards when they venture into a scholarly field (1956, 291).　　

Speaking in a different context to an African audience, Blacking…observes:　　

… although Africans may best be able to appreciate the immediate social meaning of their music, it by no means follows that they are able to write about it with authority unless they adhere to certain standards of scholarship which apply to musicological research anywhere in the world (1966, 39).　　

 【所以，就算那些捍卫“文化相对论”、“把音乐当作文化来研究”、以及讲究“局内-局外”问题的西方学者，骨子里仍是以西方为中心的。虽然Nketia的文章写于1986年，但别以为这种西方中心主义现在已经消失。】　　

l          Western-centrism: Questionable contribution of native scholarship　　

p. 51 – 52 　　

…there is also a lingering uncertainty as to whether the contribution that non-Western scholars might make might be different from those now made by Western scholars. At least two panel discussions on this issue were held at conferences of the Society for Ethnomusicology because what such scholars might possibly contribute beyond data inaccessible to Western scholars was in doubt. There was a tendency to assume that because of their Western background such scholars invariably approach the music of their own cultures with the same tacit assumptions as those held by their Western colleagues. Moreover, while their Western colleagues could be original and imaginative…, African scholars seemed to “have had a long conditioning to the usage of Western notation” to the point of not readily endorsing suggestions for the use of other systems such as cipher notation (Hood 1971: 100). Perhaps the thought of such conditioning led Merriam in his posthumous collection of essays on African music to refer to “westerners and Western-trained Africans” as forming one category (1982: 44)….　　

l          International dialogue between the West and African scholars　　

p. 53　　

…African musicology of the future would continue to draw its stimulus from both ethnomusicology and folklore as well as cognate disciplines, and that the primary activities of folk music research would be an integral part of African musicology. In other words, the recording, documentation, classification, and cataloguing of traditional music as well as its preservation and promotion would be given as much attention as investigations into theoretical issues raised by the music and its socio-cultural context. 【这是否与欧洲民族音乐学者十分相同？换句话说，当本土学者研究自己的音乐的时候，他们所关心的，或觉得有意义的研究，与来自西方的对“他者”的研究者是有不同的。因此，西方在对“他者”研究作为此起点而建立的西方“理论方法”和“学术标准”，不应该给认为一定全部是具全球性意义的。希望同学们要运用自己的智慧判断和作出选择，不要盲目崇拜、鼓吹和跟随西方（特别是美国）的所谓“理论方法”（现今国内学界不乏“传声筒”之类）。】　　

       …It seems to me, therefore, that fruitful dialogue which can enrich all aspects of African musicology must continue to be encouraged on the international level between Western scholars and their African colleagues…. 【平等的对话，建立在自强的基础上】　　

Conclusion 　　

p. 54　　

Western musicology has always been critical of its own methods and approach in response to new materials and new ideas to the ever-widening vision of humanity and to questions as to the proper place of the West in the post-colonial world-community. One can trust this critical, self-regulating mechanism to shape African musicology in the West as scholars become aware of the international dimension of their discipline. Moreover, ideas emanating from responses to the Western environment of African musicology may not only provoke discussion by Africans but also stimulate other ideas that may enhance the quest for an Africa-centered approach to African musicology…. 　　

【同样，我们呼吁的是一个以“中国”为中心的，能服务我们需要的中国音乐学。】